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Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

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Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

Paradigm summaries

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A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

  • Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
    • Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behaviour)
  • Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
  • Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
  • Declarative programming – describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes c.f. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programming)
  • Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
  • Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
  • Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
  • Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
  • Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
  • Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
    • Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
    • Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
  • Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
    • Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
    • Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
  • Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
  • Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
  • Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming[1]

Language overview

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List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language
Paradigm count
Concurrent
Constraints
Dataflow
Declarative
Distributed
Functional
Metaprogramming
Generic
Imperative
Logic
Reflection
Object-oriented
Pipelines
Visual
Rule-based
 Other
Ada​[2]​[3]​[4]​[5]​[6] 5 Yes​[a 1] — — — Yes — — Yes Yes — — Yes​[a 2] — — — —
ALF 2 — — — — — Yes — — — Yes — — — — — —
AmigaE
[citation needed]		 2 — — — — — — — — Yes — — Yes​[a 2] — — — —
APL 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — — — — — — Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes​[a 2] — — — —
C++ 7 (15) Yes​[7]​[8]​[9] Library​[10] Library​[11]​[12] Library​[13]​[14] Library​[15]​[16] Yes Yes​[17] Yes​[a 3] Yes Library​[18]​[19] Library​[20] Yes​[a 2] Yes​[21] — Library​[22] Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C# 6 (7) Yes — Library​[a 4] — — Yes​[a 5] — Yes Yes — Yes Yes​[a 2] — — — Reactive​[a 6]
ChucK
[citation needed]		 3 Yes — — — — — — — Yes — — Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Claire 2 — — — — — Yes — — — — — Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Clojure 5 Yes​[23]​[24] — — Yes — Yes​[25] Yes​[26] — — Library​[27] — — Yes​[28] Editor​[29] — Multiple dispatch,​[30] Agents​[31]
Common Lisp 7 (14) Library​[32] Library​[33] Library​[34] Yes​[35] Library​[36] Yes Yes Yes​[37] Yes Library​[38] Yes Yes​[a 7]​[a 2]​[39] Library​[40] Library​[41] Library​[42] Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,​[43] Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl 5 — — — — — Yes — Yes​[a 3] Yes — Yes Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Curry 4 Yes Yes — — — Yes — — — Yes — — — — — —
D (version 2.0)​[44]​[45] 7 Yes​[a 8] — — — — Yes Yes​[46]​[a 3] Yes​[a 3] Yes — Yes Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Delphi 3 — — — — — — — Yes​[a 3] Yes — — Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Dylan
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes — — — — Yes Yes​[a 2] — — — —
E 3 Yes — — — Yes — — — — — — Yes​[a 2] — — — —
ECMAScript​[47]​[48] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript) 4 (5) Partial​[a 9]​[a 10] — — Library​[49]​[50] — Yes — — Yes — Yes Yes​[a 11] Library​[51]​[52] Editor​[53] — Reactive,​[a 12]​[54] event driven​[a 13]​[a 14]
Erlang 3 Yes — — Yes Yes Yes — — — — — — Yes — — —
Elixir 4 Yes — — — Yes Yes Yes — — — — — Yes — — —
Elm 6 Yes — Yes Yes — Yes (pure)​[a 15] — Yes — — — — Yes — — Reactive
F# 7 (8) Yes​[a 8] — Library​[a 4] Yes — Yes — Yes Yes — Yes Yes​[a 2] — — — Reactive​[a 6]
Fortran 4 (5) Yes — — — — Yes​[a 15] — Yes​[a 16] — — — Yes​[a 2] — — — Array (multi-dimensional)
Go 4 Yes — — — — — — — Yes — Yes — Yes — — —
Haskell 8 (15) Yes Library​[55] Library​[56] Yes Library​[57] Yes (lazy) (pure)​[a 15] Yes​[58] Yes Yes Library​[59] — Partial​[a 17] Yes Yes Library​[60] Literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io 4 Yes​[a 8] — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes​[a 11] — — — —
J
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Java 6 Yes Library​[61] Library​[62] — — Yes — Yes Yes — Yes Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Julia 9 (17) Yes Library​[63] Library​[64]​[65] Library​[66] Yes Yes (eager) Yes Yes Yes Library​[67] Yes Yes​[a 18] Yes — Library​[68]​[69] Multiple dispatch,
Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy​[70] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin 8 Yes — — — — Yes Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes Yes — — —
LabVIEW 4 Yes — Yes — — — — — — — — Yes — Yes — —
Lava 2 — — — — — — — — — — — Yes​[a 2] — Yes — —
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA) 9 Yes — — — Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes Yes Yes​[a 2] — — Yes —
Lua
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes​[a 11] — — — —
MATLAB 6 (10) Toolbox​[71] Toolbox​[72] Yes​[73] — Toolbox​[74] — Yes​[75] Yes​[76] — — Yes​[77] Yes​[78] — Yes​[79] — Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle 7 Yes — — — — Yes Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Object Pascal 4 Yes — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes​[a 2] — — — —
OCaml 4 — — — — — Yes — Yes Yes — — Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Oz 11 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes — — Yes Yes — Yes​[a 2] Yes — Yes —
Perl
[citation needed]		 8 (9) Yes​[80] — Yes​[81] — — Yes Yes — Yes — Yes​[a 2] Yes​[a 2] Yes — — —
PHP​[82]​[83]​[84] 4 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — Yes Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Poplog 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes Yes — — — — — —
Prograph 3 — — Yes — — — — — — — — Yes​[a 2] — Yes — —
Python 5 (10) Library​[85]​[86] Library​[87] — — Library​[88] Yes Yes​[89]​[90] Yes​[91]​[92] Yes Library​[93] Yes Yes​[a 2] — Editor​[94] — Structured
R 4 (6) Library​[95] — — — Library​[96] Yes — — Yes — Yes Yes Yes​[97] — — Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket 10 Yes​[98] Yes​[99] Yes​[100] — Yes​[101] Yes Yes — Yes Yes Yes Yes — — — Lazy​[102]
Raku 10 Yes​[103] Library​[104] Yes​[105] — Library​[106] Yes Yes​[107] Yes​[108] Yes — Yes​[109] Yes​[110] Yes — — Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP 3 — — — — — — — — Yes Yes — — — — Yes —
Ruby 5 — — — — — Yes Yes — Yes — Yes Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha) 6 Yes​[a 8] — — — — Yes Yes​[111]​[112] Yes​[113] Yes — — Yes — — — Linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather
[citation needed]		 2 — — — — — Yes — — — — — Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Scala​[114]​[115] 9 Yes​[a 8] — Yes​[a 19] Yes — Yes Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes​[a 2] — — — —
Simula
[citation needed]		 2 — — — — — — — — Yes — — Yes​[a 2] — — — —
SISAL 3 Yes — Yes — — Yes — — — — — — — — — —
Spreadsheets 2 — — — — — Yes — — — — — — — Yes — —
Swift 7 Yes — — — — Yes Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes​[a 2] — — — Block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes​[116] — — Yes — — Yes​[a 11]​[117] — — — —
Visual Basic .NET 6 (7) Yes — Library​[a 4] — — Yes — Yes Yes — Yes Yes​[a 2] — — — Reactive​[a 6]
Windows PowerShell 6 — — — — — Yes — Yes Yes — Yes Yes​[a 2] Yes — — —
Wolfram Language & Mathematica 13​[118] (14) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes​[119] — Yes Knowledge Based

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ rendezvous and monitor-like based
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai class-based
  3. ^ a b c d e template metaprogramming
  4. ^ a b c using TPL Dataflow
  5. ^ only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
  6. ^ a b c using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
  7. ^ multiple dispatch, method combinations
  8. ^ a b c d e actor programming
  9. ^ promises, native extensions
  10. ^ using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
  11. ^ a b c d Prototype-based
  12. ^ using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
  13. ^ in Node.js via their events module
  14. ^ in browsers via their native EventTarget API
  15. ^ a b c purely functional
  16. ^ parameterized classes
  17. ^ immutable
  18. ^ multiple dispatch, not traditional single
  19. ^ Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine

Citations

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  1. ^ Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94 (IEEEXplore). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). pp. 211–220. doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508. ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3. S2CID 62509261.
  2. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
  3. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
  4. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
  5. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
  6. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
  7. ^ Thread support
  8. ^ Atomics support
  9. ^ Memory model
  10. ^ Gecode
  11. ^ SystemC
  12. ^ Boost.Iostreams
  13. ^ Boolinq
  14. ^ "AraRat" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved 2019-09-15.
  15. ^ OpenMPI
  16. ^ Boost.MPI
  17. ^ Boost.MPL
  18. ^ LC++
  19. ^ Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ^ Reflect Library
  21. ^ N3534
  22. ^ Boost.Spirit
  23. ^ Clojure - Concurrent Programming
  24. ^ Clojure - core.async
  25. ^ Clojure - Functional Programming
  26. ^ Clojure - Macros
  27. ^ Clojure - core.logic
  28. ^ Clojure - Threading Macros Guide
  29. ^ "Light Table". 2019-04-08.
  30. ^ Multimethods and Hierarchies
  31. ^ Agents and Asynchronous Actions
  32. ^ "concurrency". CLiki.
  33. ^ [1] constraint programming inside CL through extensions
  34. ^ [2] dataflow extension
  35. ^ [3] by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative
  36. ^ [4] MPI, etc via language extensions
  37. ^ template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
  38. ^ [5] [6] [7] Prolog implemented as a language extension
  39. ^ Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
  40. ^ implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation
  41. ^ - Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp
  42. ^ [8] rule-based programming extension
  43. ^ [9] Archived 2018-04-26 at the Wayback Machine through the Meta Object Protocol
  44. ^ D Language Feature Table
  45. ^ Phobos std.algorithm
  46. ^ D language String Mixins
  47. ^ The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.
  48. ^ Object-Oriented Programming in JavaScript Archived 2019-02-10 at the Wayback Machine gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.
  49. ^ "React – A JavaScript library for building user interfaces". 2019-04-08.
  50. ^ "TNG-Hooks". GitHub. 2019-04-08.
  51. ^ "Lodash documentation". 2019-04-08.
  52. ^ "mori". 2019-04-08.
  53. ^ "Light Table". 2019-04-08.
  54. ^ "TNG-Hooks". GitHub. 2019-04-08.
  55. ^ "Prolog embedding". Haskell.org.
  56. ^ "Functional Reactive Programming". HaskellWiki.
  57. ^ Cloud Haskell
  58. ^ "Template Haskell". HaskellWiki.
  59. ^ "Logict: A backtracking logic-programming monad". Haskell.org.
  60. ^ Kollmansberger, Steve; Erwig, Martin (30 May 2006). "Haskell Rules: Embedding Rule Systems in Haskell" (PDF). Oregon State University.
  61. ^ https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API
  62. ^ https://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK
  63. ^ "JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl". GitHub. JuliaOpt. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
  64. ^ "GitHub - MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl". GitHub. 2019-01-15.
  65. ^ "GitHub - JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl: Reactive programming primitives for Julia". GitHub. 2018-12-28.
  66. ^ https://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia
  67. ^ https://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia
  68. ^ "GitHub - abeschneider/PEGParser.jl: PEG Parser for Julia". GitHub. 2018-12-03.
  69. ^ "GitHub - gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl: A PEG parser generator for Julia". GitHub. 2017-08-03.
  70. ^ Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl
  71. ^ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  72. ^ "Write Constraints". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  73. ^ "Getting Started with SimEvents". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  74. ^ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  75. ^ "Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  76. ^ "Determine class of object". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  77. ^ "Class Metadata". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  78. ^ "Object-Oriented Programming". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  79. ^ "Simulink". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  80. ^ interpreter based threads
  81. ^ Higher Order Perl
  82. ^ PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
  83. ^ PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)
  84. ^ PHP Manual, Anonymous functions
  85. ^ "Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python". Python Wiki. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  86. ^ "threading — Higher-level threading interface". docs.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  87. ^ "python-constraint". pypi.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  88. ^ "DistributedProgramming". Python Wiki. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  89. ^ "Chapter 9. Metaprogramming". chimera.labs.oreilly.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  90. ^ "Metaprogramming". readthedocs.io. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  91. ^ "PEP 443 – Single-dispatch generic functions". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  92. ^ "PEP 484 – Type Hints". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  93. ^ "PyDatalog". Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  94. ^ "Light Table". 2019-04-08.
  95. ^ "Futureverse".
  96. ^ "future batchtools".
  97. ^ "Magrittr: A Forward Pipe Operator for R". cran.r-project.org\access-date=13 July 2017. 17 November 2020.
  98. ^ Racket Guide: Concurrency and Synchronization
  99. ^ The Rosette Guide
  100. ^ FrTime: A Language for Reactive Programs
  101. ^ Racket Guide: Distributed Places
  102. ^ Lazy Racket
  103. ^ Channels and other mechanisms
  104. ^ "Problem Solver module".
  105. ^ Feed operator
  106. ^ https://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module
  107. ^ "Meta-programming: What, why and how". 2011-12-14.
  108. ^ https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles
  109. ^ "Meta-object protocol (MOP)".
  110. ^ https://docs.perl6.org/language/classtut Classes and Roles
  111. ^ "The Rust macros guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
  112. ^ "The Rust compiler plugins guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
  113. ^ The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1
  114. ^ An Overview of the Scala Programming Language
  115. ^ Scala Language Specification
  116. ^ "Tcl Programming/Introduction". en.wikibooks.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  117. ^ "TCLLIB - Tcl Standard Library: snitfaq". sourceforge.net. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  118. ^ Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.
  119. ^ External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

References

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  • Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.
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